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* Present Perfect Simple and Continuous |
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^ Ongoing situations |
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a) use either the pps or the ppc to talk about situations or repeated actions that started in the past and continue into the present |
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b) often, there's no important difference, particularly with verbs such as Work, Live, Study, Do |
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`Ella's worked/Ella's been working for the company for a year now |
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c) use the ppc to emphasise that an action has continued for a long time or is repeated, often with verbs of duration, such as Wait, Stay, Stand, Sit, Write, Run, Play, etc. |
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`We've been sitting here for over an hour |
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`How long have you been waiting? |
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d) use the pps with state verbs such as Know, Understand, Like to talk about an unfinished situation |
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`How long have you known Jon? |
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^ Completed actions (recent or in time up to now) |
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a) use the pps with actions which are short and complete, e.g. Drop, Start, Finish, Leave, Break, Lose, etc. |
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`i've cut my finger |
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b) use the pps to emphasise a completed action or result |
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`it often answers the questions |
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'How many? |
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'How much? |
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'How far? |
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`he's phoned me at least 4 times today |
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`she's run 500 kilometres and she's raised 5,000 euros so far |
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^ Present Evidence |
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a) sometimes the ppc is used when there is present evidence of a recent longer activity |
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`they look hot. Yes, they've been running |
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`sorry about the smell. I've been cooking fish |
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* the passive |
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^ from the passive with be + past participle. |
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^ in a passive sentence, the agent (the doer of the action) may or may not be mentioned |
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^ comparision (active and passive) |
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a) present simple |
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`the press follows him everywhere |
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`he's followed everywhere by the press |
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b) present continuous |
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`the police are monitoring his emails |
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`his emails are being monitored by the police |
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c) past simple |
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`fire destroyed the building |
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`the building was destroyed by fire |
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d) present perfect |
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`someone's eaten my sandwich |
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`my sandwich has been eaten |
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e) will |
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`someone will tell you |
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`you'll be told |
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f) modals |
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`we can't do it now |
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`it can't be done now |
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e) -ing form |
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`i don't like people criticising me |
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`i don't like being criticised |
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f) infinitive with to |
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`the organisers want people to give feedback |
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`the organisers want to be given feedback |
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^ use the passive |
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a) to emphasise the main focus of a text or sentence |
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`the company has apoligised for losing email details of hundreds of its customers |
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`the details were left on a train by a member of staff |
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`in the second sentence the writer uses the passive to keep the focus of the text on the email details and not on the person who left them |
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b) when the agent is obvious, not important or unknown |
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`a man's been arrested on suspicion of murder |
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`i hate being watched when i practising tai chi |
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`i'm being sent a large number of spam emails these days |
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c) in more formal texts (e.g. academic writing, scientific reports) and certain text types (e.g. some newspaper articles, radio/tv news) |
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`the issue is discussed later in this paper |
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`no survivors has been found in the disaster |
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d) to create a distance between the agent and the action, for example to avoid responsibility |
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`all complaints will be taken seriously |
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e) in formla writing the following constructionis often used |
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`it is said/believed/reported/thought/understood .. that .. |
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'it is reported that a shockingly large proportion of the world population is out of work |
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* Opinions |
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^ use these expressions to express your opinion |
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a) i'm (very much) in favour of/(really) against.. |
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b) personally/basically i think/feel/believe that.. |
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c) i do think/feel/believe that.. |
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^ agreeing |
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a) that makes sense |
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b) i see what you mean |
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c) good point. |
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d) exactly/absolutely/definitely |
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e) i agree (with you) |
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^ partially agreeing |
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a) i see your point, but.. |
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b) i agree to a certain extent, but.. |
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c) fair enough, but.. |
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d) i suppose so |
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`we use this when we agree but we don't really want to |
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^ disagreeing |
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a) actually, i think.. |
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b) i'm still not convinced |
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c) i'm not so sure |
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d) i (totally) disagree |
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* A writing formal letter of complaint |
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^ Order |
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a) state the overall reason for writing, in one sentence |
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b) give additional detail about the reason for writing |
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c) explain what you have done so far |
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d) ask for specific action from the person/company you are writing to |
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e) give a time frame for action and a way of contacting you |
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f) write a polite closing comment |
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^ Sample matching formal and informal |
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a) get in touch soon to let me know what you've done sth ~ please contact me within one week of the date of this letter to confirm that these steps have been taken |
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b) to put things right, i want you to.. ~ to resolve this matter, i request that you.. |
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c) i'm writing about.. ~ i'm writing with regard to.. |
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d) with best wishes.. ~ yours faithfully, |
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e) thanks for dealing with this problem quickly ~ thank you for your prompt attention to this matter. |
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f) i've already discussed the problem ~ i have taken up this matter.. |
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^ Additional about a formal letter |
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a) the message is |
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`i've got a lawyer behind me! |
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`should you fail |
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`you remove |
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`you issue |
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`contact me |
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`you need |
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a) the tone is more immediate, less distant and therefore more threatening and personal, keeping the emphasis on you. |
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* |
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^ Phrases "for facts which you have read, heard or believe to be true" |
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a) according to |
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`accordint to one article i read, kids are less aggressive |
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b) apparently, |
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`apparently, the games give them a chance to use up some of their energy. |
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c) as fAr as i know, |
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`as far as i know, musicians these days get very little money |
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^ Phrases "to give example" |
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a) for instance, |
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`for instance, what about that man in america? |
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b) like |
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`like mike's girlfriend - she actually had some botox injections |
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c) such as |
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`such as maybe they're extremely overweight |
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