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* Articles |
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^ Use the indefinite articles (a/an) |
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a) with singular countable nouns when it's not clear which thing or person is being talked about |
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`we got an email from Carla |
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`she's renting an apartment in Berlin |
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b) the first time sth is mentioned |
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`there's a problem |
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c) in phrases of quantity or frequency |
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`2 euros a kilo |
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`5 days a week |
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`70 km an hour |
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^ Use no article |
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a) with plural and uncountable nouns to talk about things in general |
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`children need at least eight hour's sleep |
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b) for continents, countries, towns, roads, stations, mountains and lakes |
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`Asia, Spain, Moscow, Kings Kross Station, Everest, Lake Garda |
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^ Use the definite article (the) |
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a) when it's clear to the listener/reader what is being talked about |
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`Lia had the children with her (= her children) |
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b) when sth is unique; superlatives |
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`The first man on the moon |
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`It's the fastest car |
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c) when sth has been mentioned before |
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`There's a problem and the problem is money |
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d) for oceans, rivers, organisations, deserts, mountain ranges, decades |
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`The Pacific, the Danube, the UN, the Alps, the Sahara, the 1990s |
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e) in fixed lexical phrases |
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`what's the matter? |
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`the bigger the better |
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f) with an adjective or a singular countable noun for things in general |
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`the city is divided between the rich and the poor |
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`the tiger could soon be extinct |
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^ note a singular countable noun can never stan alone; |
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a) it must go with a, an, each, every, this, that, his, her, the, etc. |
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** Real and hypothetical conditionals |
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* Real conditionals |
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^ Real (zero) conditional: Conditional clause - Result clause |
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a) if + present simple - present simple |
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b) use the real (zero) conditional to talk about a real situation that is always or generally true with a result that always happens |
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`if you pay by debit card, you get a 5 percent discount |
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^ Real (first) conditional: Conditional clause - Result clause |
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a) if + present simple - will/going to/can/could/may/might/should + infinitive |
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b) use the real (first) conditional to talk about a real possibility in the present or future. |
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c) in the main clause, use may/might/can/could instead of will for an uncertain result, and use should for advice |
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`if you put in the wrong PIN number, the machine will take your card |
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`if you card gets stuck, you should ring the number on the machine |
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* Hypothetical/unreal conditionals |
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^ Hypothetical (second) conditional: conditional clause - result clause |
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a) if + past simple - would/could/might/should + infinitive |
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b) use the hypothetical (second) conditional to talk about a hypothetical or unreal situation in the present or future |
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c) in the main clause, use might/could for an uncertain result |
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d) with be use were or (informally) was |
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e) examples |
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`if Valeri practised more, she could be really good |
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`if i were you, i'd leave now |
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^ Alternatives to if |
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a) use |
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`providing/provided (that) |
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`on condition that |
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`as long as |
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,less formally |
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b) 'a)' - to meat if and only if, often with real conditions, where the speaker or writer has real reservations. |
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`i'll get a university place providing i pass the entrance exam. |
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c) use unless to mean if not |
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`i'll arrive at 10a.m. unless the train is late |
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d) use instead of if when sth is unlikely |
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`suppose/supposing |
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`imaging |
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`let's say |
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,less formally |
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e) example |
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`suppose you won the lottery, what would you do? |
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* Compound nouns |
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a) Compound nouns are usually made of two words |
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b) They can be written as separate words, e.g. |
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`bottle cap |
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c) or a single word |
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`breakthrough |
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`outlook |
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`drawback |
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`downside |
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`outcome |
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`breakdown |
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d) or they can written with a hyphen, e.g. |
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`trade-off |
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e) The plural is made by adding 's' to the end, e.g. |
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`breakdowns |
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f) Several common compound nouns are made of a verb + preposition, e.g. |
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`breakdown |
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`trade-off |
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`breakthrough |
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`drawback |
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g) or a preposition or adverb + verb, e.g. |
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`downside |
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`outlook |
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`outcome |
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h) If you understand both parts of the compound, you can often guess the meaning |
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