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The Noun 1. Grammatical Meaning: thingness or substance. According to the form of existence nouns are divided into: animate and inanimate (nonhuman and human). According to the way of nomination nouns are divided into: proper, common. According to the quantitative structure nouns are divided into: uncountable, countable, collective: collective proper (news, money, advice), nouns of multitude (My family is Ivanov. Family are seating at the table ) (police, cattle). |
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The Noun. 2.Form-category. Number: singular, plural. Gender: masculine, feminine, neuter, common. The category of gender in English is semantic. Only human animated nouns can be of masculine and feminine gender. The category of gender in English can be expressed: 1) in the meaning of the word (a man, a girl). 2) by means of suffixal derivation (-ess: actor, actress; -ine: hero, heroine; - atte: statue, statuette). 3) by means of some special lexical markers (a women-doctor, a he-bear, a she-bear, a Tom-cat, a Tabby-cat). In English some nouns are able to express two genders: feminine and masculine and they describe males and females. Such nouns comprise the group of common-gender nouns (a child, a teacher). |
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The Noun. Case: common, possessive (genitive). Article determination: indefinite, definite, ziro. Function in the sentence. The English noun can be use in the sentence in all syntactic functions but predicate: subject: Mary goes to school. Object: I meet Mary every day. Attribute: This is Mary's bag. Predicative: This is Mary. Adverbial modifier: I spent the day at Mary's garden. |
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The verb. VERB - process, presented dynamically. On the basis of subject-process relations the verbs are subdivided into: 1) actional (run, swim), 2) statal (be), 3) relational (depend, belong). Only actional verbs can be used in continuous forms.The next subdivision of the notional verbs is based on their combinability features, or their valency (сочетаемостные свойства или валентность). Verb can be: 1) Intransitive (swim, go, all verb of motion). 2) Transitive, which subdivided into: a. Monotransitive (I saw him. He was seen). b. Ditransitive (I'm giving my students a lecture. My students are being given a lecture. A lecture is being giving to my students). c. Ambitransitive - verbs which do not have any object in their primary meaning, but have become transitive in one of other meanings (He runs fast. He runs two companies well enough. The companies are run well enough). d. Prepositional transitive (I'm looking for my glasses. My glasses are being looked for - Мои очки ищут). |
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The verb. The form-category. Finitude (определенность): 1) Finite [ai]. 2) Non-finite. Person: first (я), second (ты), third (они). Number: singular, plural. The category of number is expressed in past forms of the verb "to be". Tense: past, present, future. Aspect (вид): non-continuous (simple), continuous. Retrospect: non-perfect, perfect. |
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Voice (залог): active (the agent perform action), passive (the action performs upon the agent), medial (срединный): reflexive (возвратный) - the agent perform the action upon himself (She dresses herself <-возвратное местоимение), reciprocal (взаимообратный) - the subject denotes a group of people, who perform the actions upon one another (They met. They married). Mood (наклонение): indicative (I often do it), imperative (Do it). oblique (косвенное): subjunctive (сослагательное) (If I were you...), conditional (I wouldn't do it). A finite verb is always used as the predicate of the sentence. |
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The adjective denotes (обозначают) the properties of thingness. The adjectives can be qualitative or relative. The qualitative adjective denotes qualities that can be graded (E.g. cold, beautiful, big). The relative adjective denotes such properties, that are determined by a direct relation of thingness through some other thingness ( E.g. wooden, Italian, friendly). Only the qualitative adjectives have the categories of degrees of comparison. There are 3 grades of comparison: Positive, Comparative, Superlative. There are 3 ways of formation: Synthetic, Analytic, Suppletive. |
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The synthetic way is by adding the suffixes -er, -est. This means is used with monosyllabic односложные and some disyllabic, adjectives in which the stress falls on the last syllable: big-bigger-the biggest, complete- completer-the completest. With adjectives in -le, -er, -y, -some, -ow: noble-nobler-the noblest. The analytical way is by adding the words more and the most. This means is used with polysyllabic adjectives: difficult- more difficult-most difficult. The suppletive way is by changing the root. This means is used with several adjectives: bad-worse-the worst, good-better-the best. In the sentence the adjective performs the functions of an attribute and a predicative. London is a beautiful city. He came at the wrong time. London is beautiful. I think he is right. |
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The adverb. The meaning - property of an action (to go fast) or property of another property (very fast). The adverb can be: 1. Qualitative. The qualitative adverbs denote the inherent qualities of actions and other qualities; most of them are derived from qualitative adjectives, e.g.: bitterly, hard, beautifully, well, etc (Качественные наречия обозначают признаки, внутренне присущие действиям или другим признакам; большинство из них являются производными от качественных прилагательных). |
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Quantitative. The quantitative adverbs show quantity measure; genuine quantitative adverbs are usually derived from numerals, e.g.: twice, three times, tenfold, manifold, etc (Количественные наречия передают меру признака; основные количественные наречия обычно являются производными от числительных). |
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Circumstantial. The circumstantial adverbs denote mainly the circumstances of time and place (they can also be defined as "orientative"), e.g.: today, here, when, far, ashore, abroad, often, etc. (Обстоятельственные наречия обозначают, прежде всего, обстоятельства места и времени действия (поэтому их еще называют ориентационными наречиями)) |
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The form. Only qualitative adverbs can have degrees of comparison. There are 3 grades of comparison: Positive, Comparative, Superlative. There are 3 ways of formation: Synthetic, Analytic, Suppletive. The suppletive way is used only for adverbs which have the same form with the adjectives.
Исключениями из этого правила являются наречия early и loudly, степени сравнения которых образуются при помощи суффиксов (earlier-earliest, louder-loudest), а также quickly и slowly. Степени сравнения последних двух могут образовываться обоими способами: quicker/more quickly - quickest/most quickly. slower/more slowly - slowest/more slowly. |
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The function. Adverbs are used as adverbial modifier of different types. Circumstantial adverbs can be used as an attribute. He can run fast - a.m. of manner. Quite seldom. The world today is cruel. - an attribute. |
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Every sentence can be divided into certain components that are called sentence parts. Sentence parts are divided into principal and secondary. Principal sentence parts are the subject and the predicate. Tee subject is a person-modifier of the predicate. The predicate is a process-modifier lf the subject. |
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SUBJECT. Every English sentence but one-member must have a subject. The subject can be expressed in different ways: 1. A noun in the common case: Mary is a student. 2. A personal pronoun: She is a student. 3. An infinitive: To read is interesting. 4. A gerund: Reading is interesting. 5.A numeral: 30 is her age. There are 2 types of subject: 1. Notional (denotes a person, various kinds of abstract notions and happenings). 2. Functional (служебное): 1) Impersonal (It's raining) - describes states of nature, things and general, time, distance or measurement. 2) Introductory (It takes 3 minutes to do it. There is a table here.) - introduces the notional subject, expressed by an infinitive, a gerund, a predicative complex or a clause. |
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PREDICATE. Structurally is expressed by a finite verb agrees with the subject in number and person. Types of predicate: 1. Simple verbal (в структуре сказуемого один знаменательный глагол либо фразовые глаголы) - He does it on Sundays. It will have been done by 3 o'clock. He has breakfast ("has breakfast" = клише "to breakfast"). |
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2. Compound predicate (состоят из 2 частей): 1) Verbal: a. Modal (I can do it). Consist of a modal part and an infinitive. b. Phasal [ei] (to begin, continue, finish и их синонимы). Expressed by an infinitive or a gerund. 2) Nominal - consist of a link verb and a predicate (He is a student. He is smart. He is 30. The task is to do it now). 3. Mixed - consist of 3 parts: He must be smart - modal nominal. He must begin doing it now - modal phasal. He began to feel sorry - phasal (began) nominal (link "to fell" + sorry). |
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OBJECT - Refers to some other part of the sentence and expressed by a verb, an adjective, an adverb. Types: 1. Direct - non-prepositional one that follows transitive verbs, adjective (I wrote a poem). 2. Indirect - may be attached also to intransitive verb (He gave me a book). 3. Prepositional - object introduced by a preposition (She is waiting for Tommy). |
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ATTRIBUTE modifying a part of the sentence expressed by a noun, a substantivized pronoun, a cardinal numeral, and any substantivized word, and characterizing the thing named by these words as to its quality or property. An attribute may be expressed by different parts of speech: - By adjectives (I've never seen a better place). - By numerals (He arrived just three weeks ago). - By nouns in the common case singular or prepositional nominal phrases (It happened on a December evening - декабрьский вечер, The boy started to eat a ham roll (булочка с ветчиной)). - By nouns or pronouns in the genitive case (He caught the sound of the children's voices). - By participles I and II and participial phrases (He made his way down the creaking stairs). - By gerunds, gerundial phrases, or gerundial complexes (Her walking shoes were elegant (shoes which she wore when walking). - By infinitives, infinitivel phrases, or complexes. - By adverbs or adverbial phrases. |
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Non-detached attributes form one sense group (смысловую группу) with their head┐word and are not separated from it by commas. They generally adjoin the headword and are connected with other parts of the sentence only through the headword. Non-detached attributes may be unextended, consisting of one word only, or form chains of homogeneous (однородных) attributes with identical reference, as in: a nice girl, a pretty house; red, white, and yellow flowers. Attributes with identical reference are usually interchangeable (yellow, white, and crimson flowers) and are set off by commas (red, white, yellow flowers) or joined by a conjunction as they are in the example given above. |
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Attributes may form a string with different reference, that is, those of them which are closer to the noun form one whole with subsequent (последующими) words: her usual (good temper); a clever (young man) (compare with crimson, white, yellow flowers); a large black and white (hunting dog). In the word-group a large black and white hunting dog the adjective large refers to black and white hunting dog, black and white, refers to hunting dog, and hunting refers to dog. This relation of attributes embedded inside a string of them requires a fixed order and no comma is used to separate them. |
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A detached attribute is only loosely connected with its headword and is often optional from the point of view of structure, although very important semantically. It forms a separate sense group in speech and is accordingly (соответственно) separated by commas in writing. A detached attribute may be placed in preposition, post-position, or often at some distance from the headword. Carrie looked about her, very much disturbed and quite sure that she did not want to work here. Unlike (в отличие) non-detached attributes, a detached attribute may modify personal and relative pronouns. Big and strong, he impressed us greatly. |
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Very often a detached attribute refers not only to the headword, but also to another part of the sentence, thus forming a double connection. For example, a detached attribute referring both to the subject of the sentence and to the predicate may have in addition to its attributive meaning some adverbial shade of meaning, such as conditional, causal, or concessive. And for a moment I hesitated, unable to start talking (as I was unable to start talking). Familiar with these details, Michael paid them little attention (because he was familiar with these details). |
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APPOSITION. Expressed by a noun or nominal phrase and referring to another noun or nominal phrase. Mr, Mrs, Doctor Brown, President Putin. Can be detached and non-detached. In the phrase "my friend Alice", the name "Alice" is in apposition to "my friend". Dean Martin, a very popular singer, will be performing at the Sands Hotel. - "very popular singer" is apposition. |
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ADVERBIAL MODIFIER. Modifies another part of the sentence. Characterizes the action or process expressed by a verb and denotes its quality, quantity or the whole situation. Semantically may denote: place, time, manner, cause, result, condition, measure... (Jane sings beautifully. We met ten years ago. We met in 1975. One day, on returning to his hotel, he found a note in his room. Jane has come to help us.) |
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Strangers in the night - Exchanging glances. Wondering in the night What were the chances. We'd be sharing love before the night was through. Something in your eyes Was so inviting, Something in your smile Was so exciting, something in my heart Told me I must have you. Strangers in the night Two lonely people. We were strangers in the night Up to the moment when we said our first hello. Little did we know Love was just a glance away, A warm embracing dance away. And ever since that night We've been together. Lovers at first sight In love forever. It turned out so right For strangers in the night. Love was just a glance away, A warm embracing dance away. Ever since that night We've been together. Lovers at first sight In love forever. It turned out so right For strangers in the night. |
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